经济学理论与 应用

内容概要

作者简介

罗伯特.E.霍尔是世界最著名的经济学家之一，胡佛研

究所主任，斯坦福大学经济学教授。他是美国经济研究署

“经济波动”研究室主任及“商业周期”委员会主席，经常

向美国财政部和联邦储备委员会提出经济政策建议。他在斯

坦福大学研究通货膨胀、失业、税收、货币政策和高技术经

济学。他从麻省理工学院获得博士学位，曾在麻省理工学院

和加利福尼亚大学任教。

马克.利伯曼是瓦赛学院经济学副教授，普林斯顿大学

客座教授，他在普林斯顿大学获得博士学位。他的经济学原

理课在瓦赛、哈佛、斯坦福、夏威夷等大学很受欢迎。他是

美国银行和教育考试中心的顾问。

书籍目录

BRlEF CONTENTS

PART l PRELlMlNARlES

1 What Is Economics?

2 Scarcity, Choice, and Economic Systems

3 Supply and Demand

PART ll MlCROECONOMlCS: FUNDAMENTAL

CONCEPTS

4 Elasticity: Concept and Use

5 Consumer Choice

6 Production and Cost

7 How Firms Make Decisions: Profit Maximization

PART lll PRODUCT MARKETS

8 Pure Competition

9 Monopoly

10 Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly

PART IV INPUT MARKETS

l l The Labor Market

12 Income Inequality

13 Markets for Capital and Natural Resources

PART V EFFlClENCY AND THE ROLE

OF GOVERNMENT

14 Economic Efficiency and the Comperitive Ideal

l5 Government's Role in Economic Efficiency

PART Vl MACROECONOMlCS:

BASlC CONCEPTS

16 What Macroeconomics Tries to Explain

l7 Production, Income, and Employment

18 The Monerary System, Prices, andIinflation

PART Vll LONG-RUN MACROECONOMlCS

19 The Classical Long-Run Model

20 Economic Growth and Rising Living Standards

PART Vlll SHORT-RUN MACROECONOMlCS

21 Booms and Recessions

22 The Short-Run Keynesian Model

PART IX MONEY, PRlCES. AND FLUCTUATlONS

23 The Banking System and the Money Supply

24 The Money Market and the Interest Rate

25 Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply

PART X MACROECONOMlC POLlCY

26 Inflation and Monetary Policy

27 Fiscal Policy: Taxes, Spending and the Budget Deficit

PART Xl THE INTERNATlONAL ECONOMY

28 Comparative Advantage and the Gains from Trade

29 Exchange Rates and Open-Economy Macroeconomics

Mathematical Appendix

Glossary

Index

Photo Credits

CONTENTS

PART

PRELlMlNARlES

1 WHAT IS ECONOMlCS? l

Myths about Economics

Economics, Scarcity, and Choice

Scarcity and the Individual Scarcity and Societv 3

Scarcity and Economics

The World of Economics

Microeconomics and Macroeconomics Positive and

Normative Economics Fields of Economics 6

Why Study Economics?

To Understand the World Better To Gain Self-

Confidence To Achieve Social Change To Help

Prepare for Other Careers To Become an Economist 9

The Methods of Economics

The Art of Building Economic Models Assumptions

and Conclusions Two Fundamental Assumptions

A Few Words on Macroeconomics Choosing among

Theories

"How Much Math Do l Need?"

The Basic Principles of Economics

How to Study Economics

2 SCARClTY, CHOlCE,

AND ECONOMlC SYSTEMS

The Concept of Opportunity Cost

Opportunity Cost for Individual

and Society

The Principle of Opportunity Cost

Production Possibilities Frontiers Th Search fo a Fre

Lunch

Economic Systems

Specialization and Exchange Resource Allocation

Resource Ovvnership Types of Economic Systems

Using the Theory: Opportunity Cost and the Internet

3 SUPPLY AND DEMAND

Markets

The Size of the Market

Competition in Market

Opportunit Cost

Demand

Price and Quantity Demanded The Demand Schedule

and the Demand Curve Changes in Demand

Supply

Price and Quantitv Supplied The Supplv Schedule and

the Supply Curve Changes in Supply

Putting Supply and Demand Togethe

What Happens When Things Change?

The Principle of Markets and Equilibrium

A Myth about Supply and Demand

Government Intervention in Markets

Price Ceilings Price Floors Supply and Demand

and Normati 'e Economics

Using the Theory: Anticipating a Pricc Change

MlCROECONOMlCS: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

4 ELASTlClTY:

CONCEPT AND USE

Price Elasticity of Demand

The Problem with Using Slope The Elasticity Approach

Calculating Price Elasticity of Demand Categoriz-

ing Goods by Elasticity Elasticity of Srraight-Line

Demand Curves Elasticity and Total Expenditure 81

Determinants of Elasticity Using Price Elasticity of

Demand: The War on Drugs The Basic Principle of

Policy Tradeoffs

5 CONSUMER CHOlCE

The Budget Constraint

Changes in the Budget Line

Consumer Preferences

Early Insights Rationality Tastes

Consumer Decision Making

What Happens When Things Change?

Changes in Income l16 Changes in Price

Consumers in Markets

From Individual to Market Demand

Challenges to Consumer Theory

Using the Theory: Improving Education

Appendix: Consumer Theory with Indifference Curves

The Indifference Map The Marginal Rate of

Substitution Consumer Decision Making

Indifference Curves and the Individual Demand

Curve

6 PRODUCTlON AND COST

Other Demand Elasticities

Income Elasticity of Demand

Demand

Cross-Price Elasticity of

Price Elasticity of Supply

Using the Theory: The Problem with Food

The Nature of the Firm

Types of Business Firms

Limits to the Firm

Why Employees? The

Inputs and Outputs

The Short Run and the Long Run

Production in the Short Run

Total, Marginal, and Average Product Marginal

Returns to Labor Graphing Product Curves The

Total-Marginal Relationship The Average-Marginal

Relationship

Cost in the Short Run

Thinking about Costs Measuring Short-Run

Costs The Relationship between Average and

Marginal Costs Time ro Take a Break

Production and Cost in the Long Run

The Relationship between Long-Run and Short-Run

Costs Average Cost and Plant Size Explaining

the Shape of the LRATC Curve

Using the Theory: Cost Curves and

Economic Reform in Russia

7 HOW FlRMS NAKE DEClSlONS:

PROFlT MAXlMlZATlON

The Goal of Profit Maximization

Understanding Profit

Two Definitions of Profit

A Myth about Profit

Why Are There Profits?

The Profit-Maximizing Output Level

Constraints on Revenue and Cost Total Revenue

Total Cost The Total Revenue and Total Cost

Approach The Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost

Approach Profit Maximization Using Graphs

What about Average Costs? The Importance of

Marginal Decision Making: A Broader View Dealing

with Losses: The Shutdown Rule

The Goal of the Firm Revisited

The Principal-Agent Problem The Principal-Agent

Problem at the Firm The Assumption of Profit

Maximization

Using the Theory: Getting It

Wrong and Getting It Right

Getting It Wrong: The Failure of Franklin National

Bank Getting It Right: The Success of Continental

Airlines

PART lll

PRODUCT MARKETS

8 PURE COMPETlTlON

The Notion of Competition

What Is Pure Competition?

The Purely Competitive Firm

The Demand Curve Facing a Competitive Firm Cost

and Revenue Data for a Competitive Firm Finding the

Profit-Maximizing Output Level Measuring Total

Profit The Firm's Short-Run Supply Curve

Competitive Markets in the Short Run

The (Short-Run) Market Supply Curve Short-Run

Equilibrium

Competitive Markets in the Long Run

Profil and Loss and the Long Run Long-Run

Equilibrium Distinguishing Short-Run from Long-Run

Outcomes The Notion of Zero Profit in Pure

Competition Pure Competition and Plant Size

A Summary of the Competitive Firm in the Long Run

What Happens When Things Change?

Constant-Cost Industries Increasing-Cost Industries

Decreasing-Cost Industries Changes in Demand:

A Summary

Using the Theory: Changes in Technology

9 MONOPOLY

What Is a Monopoly?

The Origins of Monopoly

Economies of Scale Control of Scarce Inputs

Government-Enforced Barriers

The Single-Price Monopoly

Price and Output Decisions of a Single-Price Monopoly

Profit and Loss Monopoly in the Short Run

Monopoly in the Long Run 245 Comparing Monopoly to

Pure Competition Why Monopolies Often Earn Zero

Economic Profit

Myths about Monopoly

Price Discrimination

Requirements (or Price Discrimination Effects of Price

Discrimination

The Demise of Monopoly

Using the Theory: Price Discrimination

at Colleges and Universities

lO MONOPOUSTlC

COMPETlTlON AND

OUGOPOLY

The Concept of Imperfect Competition

Monopolistic Competition

Monopolistic Competition in the Short Run

Monopolistic Competition in the Long Run Excess

Capacity under Monopolisric Competition Nonprice

Competition

Oligopoly

Oligopoly in the Real World Why Oligopolies

Exist Oligopoly Behavior Cooperative Behavior

in Oligopoly The Limits to Oligopoly

Using the Theory: Advertising in

Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly

Advertising and Market Equilibrium under Monopolisric

Competition Advertising and Collusion in

Oligopoly

The Four Market Structures: A Postscript

PARTIV

INPUT MARKETS

11 THE LABOR MARKET

Rcsourc' Markcts in Gencral

Labor Markcts in Particular

Del'imng a Lahor M.arket Compertitiv Lahot

Markcts

Dcmand for Labor by a Singlc Finn

The Firm's Employment Deeision when Only labor

Variable 299 The Fmployment Decision when

Several lnputs Are Variable

Thc Markct Demand for l.abor

Shitts in the' Market labor De.mand Curve.

Labor Supply

lndividual l.abor Snpply Market labor Supply Supplv

Shifts in thf Market labor Supplv Curve Short-Run

versus Lonp-Run l.abor Supply

Labor Market Equilibrium

What Happens Whcn Things Change?

A Change in l.abor Demand A Change in l.ahor

Supply Labor Shortages and Surpluses

Using the Theory: Undcrstanding thc Market

for Collcge-Educatcd Labor

12 INCOME

INEQUALlTY

Why Do Wages Diffcr?

An Imaginary World Compensa6ing Difterential.

Barriers to Entry Umon Wage Setting

Discrimination and Wages

Emplover Prejudice Employee and Customer

Preiudice Starisrical Discrimlnation Dealing

with Discrimination Discrimination and Wage

Ditferentials

Mcasuring lncomc Inequality

The Poverty Rate The Lorenz Cur Problem

w'ith inequality Measures

Incomc Inequality, Fairnessd, and Economic

Using the Theory: The Mlnimum Wage

13 MARKETS FOR

CAPlTAL AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Flovvs versus Stocks

Renral Markets and Assct Market.

Rental Markets for Capital and Natural Resources

Demand for a Resource Supply Market

Equillbrium

Asset Markets for Capital and Natural Resources

Comparing Future Dollars with l'resent Dollars

Capitalizing an Income Stream Purchase Prices of

Natural Resources An Application: l.and Price

Differentials

Nonrenewable Resourccs: Are We Doomed?

A Model of Resource Exhaustion Betting on the

Planet

Interest and the Market for Loanablc Funds

Consumers' Time Preference The Time Productivity of

Producers Nominal interest versus Real Interest

A Firm's Selection of Investmenr Projects The

Loanable Funds Markct

Financial Markets in the Unitcd States

Bonds Stocks, Diversification, and Systematic

Risk Growth and Value Fffident Market

Using thc Theory: A Corporatc Buyout

PART V

EFFlClENCY AND THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

14 ECONOMlC EFFlClENCY

AND THE COMPETlTlVE

IDEAL

The Meaning of Efficicncy

Pareto Improvements

Side Payments and Pareto Improvements Potential

Pareto Improvemcnts

The Elements of Efficiency

Productive Effieieney Allocative Etficienq

Eeonomic Efficicncy: A Summary

The Inefficiency of Imperfect Competition

Where Do We Go from Here?

Using the Theory: The Collapse of Communism

15 GOVERNMENT'S

ROLE IN ECONOMlC

EFFlClENCY

The Institutional Infrastructure of a Market Econom

The l.egal Systern Regulation Law and

Regulation in Perspective Taxation

Market Failures

Imperl'ect Competinon

Goods

Externalitie

Publie

Using the Theory: Casc Studics

of Antitrust and Rcgulation

Breaking Up a Monopoly: Alcoa Regulation and

Deregulation: The Airlines Preserving Competition:

Soft Drinks An Ongoing Challenge: Mighty

Microsoft ru

PART Vl

MACROECONOlVllCS: BASlC CONCEPTS

16 WHAT MACROECONOMlCS

TRlES TO EXPLAlN

Macroeconomic Concerns

Rapid Economic Growth High Employment

Stable Prices

The Macroeconomic Approach

Aggregation in Macroeconomics

Macroeconomic Controversies

As You Study Macroeconomics

17 PRODUCTlON, INCOME.

AND EMPLOYMENT

Production and Gross Domestic Product

GDP: A Definition The Expenditure Approach to

GDP Other Approaches to GDP Measuring

GDP: A Summary Real versus Nominal GDP

Thc Importance of Real Values: A Basic Pnnciple

How GDP Is Used Problems with GDP

Employment and Uncmployment

Types of Unemployment The Costs of Unemployment

How Unemplovment is Mleasured Prohlems in

Measuring Unemployment

Using the Theory: Society' Choie of GDP

18 THE MONETARY SYSTEM,

PRlCES. AND INFLATlON

The Monetary System

Historv of the Dollar Why Pap Currency

Accepted as a Means of Pavment

Measuring the Pricc Eevcl and Inflation

Index Numbers The Consumer Price Index

How the CPl Has Behaved From Price Index to

Inflation Rate How the CPl Is Used Real Using the Theory: Is the CPl Accurate?

Variables and Adjustment for Inflation Inflation and Sources of Bias in the CPl The Consequences of

the Measurement of Real GDP Overstating Inflation Will We Change the CPl?

The Costs of Inflation

The inflation Myth The Redistributive Cost of

inflation The Resource Cost of Inflation

Appendix: Calculating the CPl,

the GDP Price Index, and Real GDP

Calculating the Consumer Price Index Calculating the

GDP Price Index Calculating Real GDP

PART Vll

LONG-RUN MACROECONOMlCS

19 THE CLASSlCAL

LONG-RUN MODEL

Macroeconomic Models: Classical versus Keynesian

Assumptions of the Classical View

How Much Output Will We Produce?

The Labor Market Determining the Economy's

Output

The Role of Spending

Total Spending in a Very Simple Economy Total

Spending in a More Realistic Economy Leakages and

Injections The Loanable Funds Market The

Supply of Funds Curve The Demand for Funds

Curve Equilibrium in the Loanable Funds Market

The Loanable Funds Market and Say's Law ,

Money and Prices in the Classical Model

The Demand for Money Monetary Equilibrium

The Classical Model: A Summary

Using the Theory: Fiscal and Monetary

Policy in the Classical Model

An Increase in Government Purchases An Increase in

the Money Supply

20 ECONOMlC GROWTH

AND RlSlNG LlVlNG

STANDARDS

The Importance of Growth

What Makes Economies Grow

Growth in Employment Growth of the Capital

Stock Investment and the Capital Stock

Human Capital and Economic Growth Technological

Change

Economic Growth in the United States

The Cost of Economic Growth

Budgetary Costs Consumption Costs

Opportunity Costs of Workers' Time Sacrifice of

Other Social Goals

Using the Theory: Economic Growth

in the Less Developed Countries

c

PART Vlll

SHORT-RUN MACROECONOMlCS

21 BOOMS AND

RECESSlONS

Can the Classical Model Explain

Booms and Recessions?

Shifts in Labor Demand Shifts in Labor Supply

Verdict: The Classical Model Cannot Explain Booms and

Recessions

Booms and Recessions: A More Realistic View

Opportunity Cost and Labor Supply Firms'

Benefits from Hiring: The Labor Demand Curve

The Meaning of Labor Market Equilibrium The Investment Spending

Labor Market in a Recession The Labor Market in a

Boom Government Purchases

What Triggers Booms and Recessions?

A Very Simple Ecunomy The Real-World

Economy Shocks That Push the Economy Away trom

Equilibrium Job Destruction and Job Creation

The Economics of Slow Adjustment

Adjustment in a Boom Adjustment in a Recession

The Speed of Adjustment

Where Do We Go from Here?

22 THE SHORT-RUN,

KEYNESlAN MODEL

Consumption Spending

The Relationship between Consurnption and Disposable

Income The Relationship between Consumption

and Income Shifts in the Consumption-lncome

Line

Income and Aggregate Expenditure

Finding Equilibrium GDP

Inventories and Equilibrium GDP Finding

Equilibrium GDP with a Graph Equilibrium GDP

and Employment

What Happens When Things Change?

A Change in Investment Spending The Expenditure

Multiplier The Multiplier in Reverse Other

Spending Shocks A Graphical View of the Multiplie

An Important Proviso about the Multiplier

Comparing Models; Classical and Keynesian

The Role of Saving The Effect of Fiscal Policy

Using the Theory: The Recession of 1990-1991

Appendix l: Finding Equilibrium GDP Algebraically

Appendix 2: The Special Case of the Tax Multiplier

PARTIX

MONEY, PRlCES, AND FLUCTUATlONS

23 THE BANKlNG SYSTEM

AND THE MONEY SUPPLY

What Is Counted as Money

Measuring the Money Stock

Assets and Their Liquidity

The Banking System

Financial Intermediaries

A Bank's Balance Sheet

Ml and M2

Commercial Banks

The Federal Reserve System

The Structure of the Fed The Federal Open Market

Committee The Functions of the Federal Reserve

The Fed and the Money Supply

How the Fed Increases the Money Supply ' The

Demand Deposit Multiplier The Fed's Effect on the

Banking System as a Whole How the Fed Decreases

the Money Supply Some Important Provisos about the

Demand Deposit Multiplier 650 Other Tools fo

Controlling the Money Supply 651

Using the Theory: Bank Failures and Banking Panics

24 THE MONEY MARKET AND

THE INTEREST RATE

The Demand for Money

An Individual's Demand for Money The Economy-

Wide Demand for Money

The Supply of Money

Equilibrium in the Money Market

How the Money Market Reaches Equilibrium

What Happens When Things Change?

How the Fed Changes the Interest Rate The Fed in

Action How Do Interest Rate Changes Affect the

Economy? Fiscal Policy (and Other Spending

Changes) Revisited

Curve

Shifts in the Monev Demand

Are There Two Theories of thc Interest Rate?

Using the Theory: Active versus Passive Policy

The Fed's Response to Spending Shocks The Fed'

Response to Changes in Money Demand

25 AGGREGATE DEMAND AND

AGGREGATE SUPPLY

The Aggregate Demand Curve

Undersranding the AD Curve Movement along the

AD Curve Shifrs of the AD Curve

The Aggregate Supply Curve

Prices and Costs in the Short Run Deriving the

Aggregate Supply Curve Movements along the AS

Curve Shifts of the AS Curve

AD and AS Together: Short-Run Equilibrium

What Happens When Things Change?

Demand Shocks in the Short Run Demand Shocks:

Adjusting to the Long Run The Long-Run Aggregate

Supply Curve Supply Shocks

Some I5mportant Provisos about the AS Curve

Using the Theory: The Recession

and Recovery of 1990-92

PART X

MACROECONOMlC POLlCY

26 INFLATlON AND

MONETARY POLlCY

The Objectives of Monetary Policy

Low, Stable Inflation Full Employment

The Fed's Perfonnance

Federal Reserve Policy: Theory and Practice

Responding to Shifts in the Money Demand Curve

The Fed's Response to Spending Shocks Responding

to Supply Shocks

Expectations and Ongoing Inflation

How an Ongoing Inflation Arises Ongoing Inflation

and Monetary Policy The Phillips Curve

Why the Fed Allows Ongoing Inflation

Using the Theory: Conducting Monetary

Policy in the Real World

Information about the Money Demand Curve

Information ahout the Sensitivity of Spending to the Interest

Rate Uncertain and Changing Time Lags The

Natural Rate of Unemployment

27 FlSCAL POLlCY: TAXES,

SPENDlNG, AND THE

BUDGET DEFlClT

Thinking about Spending, Taxes and the Deficit

Government Spending, Taxes, and the

Budget Deficit: Some Background

Government Spending Federal Tax Revenues

The Federal Deficit and the National Debt

A Myth about Financing the Budget Deficit

The Effects of Fiscal Changes in the Short Run

How Booms and Recessions Affect Spending, Taxes,

and the Budget Deficit Countercyclical Fiscal

Policy?

The Effect of Fiscal Changes in the Long Run

A Contrary View: Ricardian Equivalence

Using the Theory: Are We

Headed for a Debt Disaster?

PART Xl

THE INTERNATlONAL ECONOMY

28 COMPARATlVE

ADVANTAGE AND THE

GAlNS FROM TRADE

The Logi of Frec Trade

The Theory of Comparative Advantage

Opportunity Cost and Comparative Advantage

Specialization and World Production Gains trom

lnternational Trade The Terms of Trade

Comparative Advantage: A Graphical lllustration

Complete Specialization Consumption bevond th

Frontier

Turning Potential Gains into Actual Gain

Some lmportant Provisos

The Sources of Comparative Advantag

Why Some People Object to Free Trade

Thelmpact of Trade in the Exporting Country The

[mpa5ct of Trade in the impoi-ting Country Attitude

toward Free Trade: A Summary

How Free Trade Is Restricted

Tariffs Quotas Protectionism

Myths about Free Trade

Sophisticated Argument for Protection

Using the Thcory: Trade

Restrictions in the United State

29 EXCHANGE RATES

AND OPEN-ECONOMY

MACROECONOMlCS

Foreign Exchange Markets and Exchange Rates

Dollars per Pound or Pounds per Dollar?

The Demand for British Pounds

The Demand for Pounds Curve Shifts in the Demand

for Pounds Curve The Demand tor Pounds Curve:

A Summary

The Supply of British Pounds

The Supply of Pounds Curve Shifts in the Supply of

Pounds Curve The Supply of Pounds Curve:

A Summary

The Equilibrium Exchange Rate

What ahout the Market for Dollars?

What Makes Exchange Rates Change?

How Exchange Rates Change over Time Managed

Float Interdependent Markets: The Role of

Arbitrage

Macroeconomics in an Open Economy

Aggregate Expenditure in an Open Economy

Equilibrium Output in an Open Economy Spending

Shocks in an Open Economy Exchange Rates and

Economic Policy

Using the Theory: Understanding

the U.S. Trade Deficit

MATHEMATlCAL APPENDlX MA-l

GLOSSARY G-l

INDEX l-l

PHOTOCREDlTS PC-l

作者简介

内容提要

本书是美国斯坦福等著名大学的经济学标准教材，经过

多届学生使用而日臻完美。它的独特之外在于：明确阐述了

8个最基本的经济学原理，辨析了一些似是而非的问题，指

出了最容易犯错误的“危险出线”，提供了浅显易懂的数学

附录。

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