《应用语言学百科词典》章节试读

《应用语言学百科词典》的笔记-第198页 - learning strategies

Learning strategies contribute to L2 development. Theses are techniques used by second language learners for remembering and organizing samples of the L2.
There are three broad domains covered by learning strategies: those which determine the learner's personal involvement in learning process; those which enable the learner to sort out and organize the L2 data; those which cause the learner to monitor his or her progress.

《应用语言学百科词典》的笔记-第132页 - first and second language acquisition

First language acquisition is successful: children end up having the same grammatical knowledge as the speakers around them. L1 acquisition is inevitable: children cannot choose not to learn the language spoken around them.
Children are born with an innately endowed language faculty, which consists of a set of general principles that determine the form that human languages can take. Knowledge of language grows as the child's mental abilities grow, this being the effect of the child interacting with his or her environment. As plants grow in response to nutrients and light, so the first language grammar grows in response to samples of the language spoken around the child.
There are similarities between SLA and first language acquisition: the systematicity of development, the lack of direct effect of instruction and feedback on development, the generativity of L2 knowledge. Then, a theory appropriate to first language acquisition may also be appropriate SLA.
However, L2 acquisition is not inevitable. There are considerable differences between individuals in success in acquiring L2s. And, as a group, L2 learners are rarely as successful as native speakers, even given considerable exposure. There appears to be a critical period for acquiring languages after which acquisition becomes less successful: beyond the age of 6 or 7 it seems to be progressively more difficult for the majority of L2 learners to acquire the same mental representations for the target language as native speakers.

《应用语言学百科词典》的笔记-第20页 - attitude

Attitude may be thought of as opinions, beliefs, ways of responding, with respect to some set of problems. They may not be formulated verbally until someone asks; they may not even be immediately available to conscious attention. They may be formed from haphazard experience, or they may be the result of deliberate thought. As such, they are vague, loose and difficult to capture. They may exert considerable control over a learner’s behavior in numerous ways, and therefore may be related directly or indirectly to levels of achievement. Attitudinal information has a place in language teaching. Attitudes that have been explored in relation to language learning range from anxiety about the language and the learning situation, through attitudes to speakers of the L2, the country in which it is spoken, the classroom, the teacher, other learners, the nature of language learning, particular elements in the learning activities, tests and beliefs about learning in general. Learners may suffer from anxiety in relation to a number of aspects of the teaching-learning process; for example, about the language itself, about speaking in front of other learners, about the language class, about the behavior of their peers, about their standing in the competition with fellow learners, about taking tests, about the speakers of the language they are learning, etc. The more anxious they were, the less well they believed they could perform.

《应用语言学百科词典》的笔记-第98页 - discourse analysis

《应用语言学百科词典》的笔记-第12页 - preface by Chomsky

It is about half a century since the study of language undertook a rather new course, while renewing some traditional concerns that had long been neglected. The central change was a shift of attention from behavior and the products of behavior (texts, corpora, etc.) to the internal mechanisms that enter into behavior. This was part of a general shift of perspective in psychology towards what became known as "cognitive science," and was in fact a significant factor in contributing to this development.
Exposed to a world of "buzzing, booming confusion", each individual person instantly identified some intricate subpart of special properties as linguistic, and reflexively, without awareness or instruction, performed analytic operations that led to knowledge of some specific linguistic system, in one case, a variety of what is called informally "English," in another a variety of "Spanish." It could just as easily been one of the Chinese languages, or an aboriginal language of Australia, or some other human language. Exposed to the same environment, their pet cats would not even take the first step of identifying the relevant category of phenomena.
Viewed in the internalist perspective, the study of language is part of biology. All organisms have special subsystems that lead them to deal with their environment in specific ways. Some of these subsystems are called "mental" or "cognitive," informal designations that need not be made precise, just as there is no need to determine exactly where chemistry ends and biology begins. The development of cognitive systems, like others, is influenced by the environment, but the general course is genetically determined. The evidence is strong that among the human cognitive systems is a "faculty of language" (FL), to borrow a traditional term: some subsystem of the brain. The evidence is also overwhelming that apart from severe pathology, FL is close to uniform for humans: it is a genuine species property. The "initial state" of FL is determined by the common human genetic endowment. Exposed to experience, FL passes through a series of states, normally reaching a relatively stable state at about puberty, after which changes are peripheral: growth of vocabulary, primarily.
As far as we know, every aspect of language -- sound, structure, meanings of words and more complex expressions -- is narrowly restricted by the properties of the initial state; these same restrictions underlie and account for the extraordinary richness and flexibility of the systems that emerge. We can think of the states attained by FL as language: in more technical terminology, we may call them "internalized languages". Language can surely be used for communication, as can anything people do, but it is not unreasonable to adopt the traditional view that language is primarily an instrument for expression of thought, to others or to oneself; statistically speaking, use of language is overwhelmingly internal, as can easily be determined by introspection.
Just as human biology is a core part of anthropology, history, the arts, and in fact any aspect of human life, so the biolinguistic approach belongs to the social sciences and humanities as well as human biology.
The past half century of the study of language has been rich and rewarding, and the prospects for moving forward seem exciting.

《应用语言学百科词典》的笔记-第223页 - motivation

Motivation is usually defined as a psychological trait which leads people to achieve some goal. In language learning, that goal may be mastery of the language or achievement of some lesser aim. An important distinction within motivation can be drawn between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is thought of as being within the task itself: a sense of achievement, self-esteem, pride in solving the problem, enjoyment of the class, being able to use the language as desired. Extrinsic motivation is therefore external to the task itself, usually other consequences of success on the task: prizes for doing well, getting the job of one’s choice, a higher position, gaining some certificate on a test score. To some learners, the extrinsic benefits of success may be sufficient to keep them working at the goal of mastery; to others, the supposed benefits of ultimate success may mean little but the sense of achievement all. Thus, motivation depends on the learner’s evaluation of the motivating forces.
Typically, motivation has been related to five different aspects of the goal of mastering a language. Each of these aspects is approached by learners in different ways. The first is volitional undertaking, actually starting to learn a language. The second is perseverance, or continuing with the task. Learning a language is a time-consuming activity, and the arguments, benefits or other motivating factors which started the process are often not the same as those required to continue for the months and years which learning a second language normally requires. The third is tolerance of frustration. A strongly motivated person is likely to persevere through the ordinary and some extraordinary frustrations in learning a language better than one with low motivation. The fourth is risk preference. Highly motivated people may be more willing to risk cognitive and social stability than others. Cognitive risk-taking refers to information overload, forgetting, incomprehension, faulty identification and categorization. Social risk-taking refers to loss of face, nerves about performing in front of peers, fear of communication failure. Lastly, motivation may have a role to play in anxiety management. Highly motivated people may be able to cope with anxiety about the learning experience better than others.
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